Cassowary Bibliography

Compiled by Ken Ladd
Last update: August 16, 1996
28 References

1. Barman N; Sharma R; Chakraborty A; Saikia G; Hussain A; and
Boro B. Bacterial and fungal flora of zoo birds.
Indian-Journal-of-Animal-Sciences 1994; 64(3): 266-269.
9 ref
Assam/ India/ aviary birds/ zoo animals/ Nyticorax
nyticorax/ Ardeidae/ Ciconiiformes/ Cygnus atratus/ Anser
indicus/ budgerigars/ Dendrocitta vagabunda/ emus/ Acridotheres
tristis/ Anthropoides virgo/ Gruidae/ Casuarius casuarius/ Corvidae
/ Cuculus canorus/ Cuculidae/ turkeys/ peafowls/ ostriches/ Monasa
/ Bucconidae/ Piciformes/ Anseridae/ Aspergillus fumigatus/ Candida
krusei/ Escherichia coli/ Salmonella/ Citrobactera/ Edwardsiella
/ Pasteurella/ Proteus/ Enterococcus/ bacterial diseases/ mycoses
/ hosts 

2. Campodonico, P and Masson, C. Breeding and production of
ratites . Maisons-Alfort, France: CIRAD-EMVT; 1992; 98 pp. 
French; 117 ref. 
The plumage, body weight, conformation and voice patterns of the
ostrich, cassowary, rhea and emu and the natural habitats of
these birds are described. Details are given of behaviour,
diseases, nutrition, reproductive season and performance in
captivity, AI, laying performance, incubation, hatching and
management, breeding history and the production of feathers,
meat, skins, eggs and cooking oil. Their potential for use as a
tourist attraction is discussed, and economic aspects are
considered.
plumage/ body weight/ reproduction/ meat production/ behaviour/ 
management/ ostriches/ cassowaries/ rheas/ emus/ tropics/ breeding/ 
animal production/ ratites/ production 

3. Campodonico P and Masson C. Nutrition and reproduction of
ostriches. 3. Nutrition. Bulletin des G.T.V. 1990; (No. 4):
73-76.
French
Recommendations are given for the nutrition of the 4 main
struthioniformes in captivity (ostrich, rhea, emu and cassowary)
based on information from 52 zoos worldwide followed by examples
of diets provided in ostrich farms.
Struthionidae/ nutrition/ Ostriches 

4. Campodonico P and Masson C. Ostrich husbandry. Bulletin des
G.T.V. 1990; (No. 2 ): 59-73.
French
The first part of this series on ostrich husbandry summarizes
knowledge on the geographical distribution of ostriches, emus,
rheas and cassowaries, their adaptability to captivity, diseases
and parasites and their treatment, and anaesthesia.
anaesthesia/ anthelmintics/ drug therapy/ parasitoses/ ostriches/ 
diseases/ Struthioniformes/ birds/ parasites/ general account

5. Coddington C and Cockburn A. The Mating System Of Free
Living Emus. Australian Journal Of Zoology 1995; 43(4): 365-372.
English; 9601
Despite their pivotal role in interpretation of the complex
mating systems of the ratites, the mating system of free living
emus (dromaius novaehollandiae) has not been characterised. here
we report observations on an introduced but free ranging
population of emus at tidbinbilla nature reserve in the
australian capital territory. emus combined monogamy, polyandry
and promiscuity. all initially unpaired males paired with and
incubated a clutch for females whose primary mates were
preoccupied with incubation. however, females were also
promiscuous, and most copulations we observed were extra pair.
females fight vigorously among themselves for access to unpaired
males. coupled with observations on cassowaries, these data
suggest that there is no simple correlation between habitat
(grassland/ forest) and the mating system in ratites. instead,
the resolution of the complex conflicts of interest between the
sexes appears to determine the predominant mating systems 
exhibited by a species.
Island brown kiwi/ apteryx australis mantelli/ organization

6. Cracraft J. Phylogeny and evolution of the ratite birds.
Ibis 1974; 116(4): 494-521.
English; 95 ref.
Postulated evolutionary trends by the author (using skeletal
characters) are used to construct a theory of relationships. The
author used the premise that phylogenetic affinity can be
demonstrated only by shared character-states and that primitive
character-states held in common by different taxa provide no
information. Character analysis - evolutionary trends in the
palaeognath skeleton - looked at cranial and postcranial
characters. (KL)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ cassowaries/ rheas/ kiwis/ tinamous

7. Crome F. Some observations on the biology of the Cassowary
in northern Queensland. Emu 1976; 76: 8-14.
KL1-

8. Crome F and Moore L. Cassowaries in northeastern Queensland
(Australia): Report of a survey and a review and assessment of
their status and conservation and management needs. Australian
Wildlife Research 1990; 17(4): 369-386.
English
This is a report on the distribution, status and conservation of
the southern cassowary between Cooktown and Townsville, based on
a field, public and literature survey. The status of birds in 77
regions is given according to a scoring system and the decline
and/ or loss of cassowaries in several of them is noted.
Cassowary habitat and the factors controlling the distribution of
the birds are discussed; plant species diversity and history are
considered the most important. We consider the species threatened
in this region, and its decline, predators, disease, movements
and the conservation and management requirements are discussed.
Behavior/ Habitat Preference

9. Drew, M. Ostrich medicine and surgery: The basics. 
California and Nevada Veterinary Medical Associations' Joint
Scientific Seminar and Exposition; October 25-27, 1991; Reno,
Nevada. 325-357. 
KL1+
Gives a general description of ostriches (4 subspecies), emu,
rhea (2 species) and cassowary (3 species). Discusses ostrich
management including nutrition, management of adults, hatchery
and incubation management, and chick managment. Clinical medicine
for ratites is reviewed with discussion of restraint and
anesthesia, hematology and serum chemistry, pediatrics,
reproductive disease and problems, sexing, parasitic diseases,
viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, traumatic
injuries, abdominal surgery, and orthopedics. Tables on- 1)
Incubation and hathcer environmental condition recommendation; 2)
Drugs and dosages for ratite immoblization; 3) Hematology for
ostriches; 4) Serum chemistry for ostriches; and 5) Serum
chemistry values for emus. There is an extensive bibliography.
Ostriches/ Emus/ Rheas/ Cassowaries/ Ratites/ Hematology/ Serum
chemistry/ Ostrich management/ Parasitic diseases/ Viral
diseases/ Bacterial Diseases/ Traumatic injuries/ Fungal
diseases/ Surgery/ Pediatrics/ Immoblization

10. Ensley P; Launer D; and Blasingame J. General anesthesia and
surgical removal of a tumor-like growth from the foot of a
double-wattled cassowary. Journal-of-Zoo-Animal-Medicine 1984;
15(1): 35-37.
1 ref
Etorphine/ Halothane/ Ketamine/ Restraint of animals/ Zoo
animals/ Anaesthesia/ Aviary birds/ Struthioniformes 

11. Fowler, ME. Clinical anatomy of ratites. Proceedings of the
Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians;
September 1-5, 1992; New Orleans. Florida: Association of Avian
Veterinarians; 1992 307-309. 
English; 1 ref.; 9603
Avian practitioners may be asked to provide medical care for
numerous species of birds. Ratites (ostrich, emu, rhea, cassowary
and kiwi) have become popular in private ownership during the
past few years. A ratite-rearing industry provides an alternative
to other livestock enterprises. Practitioners should have a basic
understanding of ratite anatomy in order to protect themselves
from the bird's offensive and defensive blows with the feet, and
to understand how to collect laboratory samples, administer
medication, evaluate radiographs, perform surgery and distinguish
between normal and abnormal organs at necropsy. A limited amount
of material can be covered in this presentation; for more
information refer to reference 1. (Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ anatomy

12. . Order Casuariiformes Griner, LA. Pathology of Zoo Animals. 
[San Diego]: Zoological Society of San Diego; 98-104. 
English; 0 ref; 9606
The book reviews necropsies performed over a fourteen-year period
at the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Wild Animal Park. This chapter
(9), gives a brief overview of the two families (emus and
cassowaries) of this order. Discusses the findings of the
necropsies and provides statistics in tables. Most emu mortality,
94.4% occured in birds under six months of age. One table lists
by year (1966 to 1977) the sex and age of the 109 emus
necropsied. A second table indicates by year, conditions
(aspergillosis, perosis, enteric pathogens, omphalitis, and
other) in emu neonates and perinates. Finally there is a table on
less common diseases in young emus. There is a discussion under
the headings: infectious diseases; and stress, trauma and
malnutrition. 
For cassowaries, there is a table on diseases by species
(double-wattled, single-wattled, and Van Oort's double-wattled
cassowary). There is a brief discussion of the diseases.
emus/ cassowaries/ diseases

13. Houde P. Ostrich ancestors found in the Northern Hemisphere
suggest new hypothesis of ratite origins. Nature 1986; 324(6097):
563-565.
English; 18 ref.; 9603
Modern ratites (ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, and kiwis)
are flightless birds which have a palatal structure termed
'palaeognathous' and are found on daughter-landmasses of the
Mesozoic supercontinent Gondwanaland. It has been suggested that
a single flightless ancestor, widely distributed in Gondwanaland,
gave rise to the various lineages of ratite birds. The temporal
calibration of the DNA molecular clock is primarily based on the
divergence of ratites, and depends on the valididty of the
hypothesis. Newly studied fossils suggest that the ancestors of
ostriches are instead among a group of North American and
European birds, the 'Lithornis-cohort', that had the potential of
flight and from which the kiwis may have arisen separately.
(Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ cassowaries/ kiwis/ evolution

14. Kenny D and Cambre R. Indications and technique for the
surgical removal of the avian yolk sac. Journal of Zoo and
Wildlife Medicine 1992; 23(1): 55-61.
13 ref
Surgery/ Casuarius casuarius/ EMUS/ Anseriformes/ Anser
indicus/ Chloephage picts/ Aythya valisineria/ Struthioniformes
/ Yolk sac

15. Kinde H. Case report: a fatal case of oak poisoning in a
double-wattled cassowary (Casuarius casuarius). Proceedings of
the Western Poultry Disease Conference 1988; 37: 166.
Quercus agrifolia/ Birds/ Case reports/ Poisonous plants/ Quercus 

16. Kinde H. A fatal case of oak poisoning in a double-wattled
cassowary (Casuarius casuarius). Avian-Diseases 1988; 32(4):
849-851.
5 ref
Histopathology/ Tannins/ Poisonous plants/ Quercus/ Birds 

17. Klos H; Langner H; Boenigk G; Wandelburg K; Pohl H; Grund S;
Eichberg J; and Steglich W. Chemical and physical studies on
eggshells of four species of running birds (Struthioniformes).
Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin 1976; 23A(5): 413-428.
German; 9601; 15 ref
Calcium/ Magnesium/ Sodium/ Strontium/ Copper/ Iron/ Silicon/ Manganese/ 
Phosphorus/ Carbonate/ Pigments/ Classification/ egg shell/ Birds/ 
ostriches/ Rhea/ Struthioniformes/ Emu/ Cassowary

18. Leeds E. Tibial fracture repair in a double-waddled
cassowary. Journal of Veterinary Orthopedics 1979; 1(1): 21-27.
English; 9601
fractures/ Struthioniformes/ Birds 

19. Noble J. On ratites and their interactions with plants.
Revista Chilena De Historia Natural 1991; 64(1): 85-118.
English
The fossil histories, distribution patterns and habitat
preferences of both extinct and extant members of the Ratitae are
reviewed. Particular emphasis is directed towards those physical
and anatomical features of ratites which have apparent
significance in terms of vegetation dynamics, especially those
aspects relating to seed germination and seedling establishment.
Apart from the New Zealand kiwis (Apteryx spp.), the principal 
feature distinguishing the ratites from other birds is their
large size. Whilst the evolutionary consequences of gigantism
have resulted in the comparatively recent extinction of some
species such as the moas (the Dinornithidae and Emeridae) of New
Zealand and the elephant birds (Aepyornithidae) of Madagascar,
the large size of contemporary ratites confers an ability to
ingest considerable quantities of food, as well as particular
items such as fruits and stones too large for other birds,
without having to suffer any impairment of flight. Many of these
plant foods, especially fruits such as those of the Lauraceae,
can be highly nutritious, but ratites are omnivorous and can
utilize a range of alternatives when necessary. Whether prey
selection is directly related to nutritional reward is uncertain
however the breeding season of the Australian cassowary 
(Casuarius casuarius johnsonii) is closely linked to the period
of maximum fruit production by trees and shrubs in their tropical
rainforest habitats. Some ratites such as the moas and the
mihirungs (Dromornithidae) may also have influenced plant
selection and vegetation succession through their differential
browsing of particular species and plant organs. There is some
apparent mutualism in terms of benefits conferred on plant 
populations following propagule ingestion by ratites. In certain
situations, seeds of plants germinate satisfactorily only after
the seed has passed through the ratite gut. It is postulated
that many of the large-fruited diaspores eaten by ratites will
only germinate rapidly in faecal microsites thereby conferring
considerable ecological benefits by promoting substantial, and
dispersed, seedling recruitment. On heavy textured soils, the 
semi-arid shrub Nitraria billardieri, only establishes in
abundance once the succulent fruit, which ripens during the
summer, has been eaten by emus (Dromaius novaehollandiea). In
the sandy substrates of coastal areas where fallen fruit is
readily covered by windblown sand, the species germinates
readily in the absence of avian ingestion.
Apteryx spp./ Casuarius casuarius johnsonii/ Nitraria
billardieri/ Dromaius novae hollandiae/ Fossil/ Ratite/ Habitat
preference/ Distribution/ Evolution/ Gigantism/ Vegetation
dynamics/ Seed/ Germination/ Extinction

20. Orosz S; Mullins J; and Patton S. Evidence of toxoplasmosis
in two ratites. Journal of the Association of Avian Veterinarians
1992; 6(4): 219-222.
17 ref
Two ratites were presented on separate occasions for anorexia and
gastrointestinal distress. Both birds had high antibody titres
for Toxoplasma gondii. The flock mates were negative for
antibodies against T. gondii and appeared clinically normal.
Because titres to T. gondii develop in animals only following
infection, the high titre in the 2 affected birds suggests that
they had toxoplasmosis. The authors concluded that toxoplasmosis
should be considered in the differential diagnosis of ratites
with anorexia, diarrhoea and dyspnoea. Cats should not have
access to ratite feed or any areas where ratites are maintained.
If ratites are to be considered as a food source, the possibility
of T. gondii transmission needs to be investigated further.
Protozoal infections/ Case reports/ Pathology/ Disease
transmission/ Casuarius casuarius/ Rhea americana/ Toxoplasma/ Birds
/ Apicomplexa/ Sarcocystidae/ Rheidae/ Toxoplasma gondii/ USA
/ Tennessee 

21. Phillips P and Sanborn A. An Infrared, Thermographic Study
of Surface-Temperature in 3 Ratites - Ostrich, Emu and
Double-Wattled Cassowary. Journal of Thermal Biology 1994; 19(6):
423-430.
English Article
(1) Surface temperatures of the ostrich (Struthio camelus), emu
(Dromaius novaehollandiae) and double-wattled cassowary
(Casuarius casuarius) were measured using infrared thermography
at ambient temperatures ranging from 0 to 27 degrees C. (2) The
pattern of surface temperature regulation for thermoregulatory
purposes was similar in all species examined. Beak, lower leg and
neck surface temperatures are regulated in all species to alter
heat exchange with the environment. The feet and toes are also
used by the ostrich and emu to regulate heat exchange. The
cassowary does not use the feet and toes to the same extent but
used the casque in a similar manner. (3) Standard metabolic rates
were estimated using a geometric model of a bird and
instantaneous heat loss calculated for specific body parts. (4)
Up to 40% of metabolic heat production can be dissipated across
these structures which comprise 12% and 17.5% of total body
surface area. (5) The ostrich was able to regulate surface
temperature more precisely than the other species, probably due
to a larger body size. The large wings of the ostrich are useful
for thermoregulation by increasing convective heat loss.
Surface Temperature/ Ratites/ Thermoregulation/ Thermal
Windows/ Ostrich/ Struthio Camelus/ Emu/ Dromaius
Novaehollandiae/ Double Wattled Cassowary/ Casuarius
Casuarius/ EXTERNAL THERMAL STRESS/ LARGE
BIRD/ METABOLISM/ BALANCE/ WATER

22. Prager E; Wilson A; Osuga D; and Feeney R. Evolution of
flightless land birds on southern continents: transferrin
comparison shows monophyletic origin of ratites. Journal of
Molecular Evolution 1976; 8(3): 283-294.
A biochemical approach was used to study the evolution of ratite
birds, i.e., the ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, and kiwis. 
Quantitative immunological comparison of transferrin from
ratites, tinamous, and other flying birds indicates that all the
ratites and tinamous are allied phylogenetically and that they
are of monophyletic origin relative to other birds. To explain
the current geographic distribution of ratites and the magnitude
of the transferrin distances, it is supposed that the ancestors
of these flightless birds walked across land bridges between the 
southern continents during Cretaceous times.
Amino Acid Sequence/ Complement Fixation Tests/ Geography
/ Phylogeny/ Species Specificity/ *Birds/ *Evolution/ *Transferrin 

23. Ruempler G. Diseases of rearing in running birds (Ratitae).
Voliere 1978; 1(1): 20-22.
German; 9601; 6 ref
Perosis/ zoo animals/ birds/ ostriches/ Emu/ Nandu/ Cassowary

24. Rzhetsky A; Kumar S; and Nei M. Four-cluster analysis: A
simple method to test phylogenetic hypotheses. Molecular Biology
and Evolution 1995; 12(1): 163-167.
English
A simple statistical test for comparing three alternative
phylogenetic hypotheses for four monophyletic groups is
presented. This test is based on the minimum-evolution
principle, and it does not require any information regarding the
branching order within each monophyletic group. It is
computationally efficient and can be easily extended to five or
more monophyletic groups.
RESEARCH
ARTICLE/ OSTRICH/ CASSOWARY/ EMU/ RHEA/ TINAMOU/ MOA/ KIWI/ MINIMUM
EVOLUTION PRINCIPLE/ MONOPHYLETIC GROUP/ MATHEMATICAL
METHOD/ ANALYTICAL METHOD/ GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION/ NEW
ZEALAND/ AUSTRALIA/ NEW GUINEA/ AFRICA/ ASIA/ SOUTH AMERICA

25. Scheideler S and Angel R. Feeding big birds. Large Animal
Veterinarian 1994; 49(2): 28, 30.
5 ref
Digestion and nutrient requirements of ratites, such as
ostriches, emus, kiwis, rheas and cassowaries, are discussed.
Vitamin E and selenium are of primary concern in ratite diets.
Struthionidae/ Dromaiidae/ Rheidae/ Apterygidae/ vitamin
E/ selenium/ nutrient requirements/ ostriches/ emus 

26. Sibley C and Frelin C. The egg white protein evidence for
ratite affinities. Ibis 1972; 114(3): 377-387.
English; 45 ref; 9603
Egg white proteins from a number of bird species were compared
using isoelectric focusing gel electrophoresis. From their
studies, the authors concluded that: the large ratites (ostrich,
cassowary, emu and rheas) are more closely related to one another
than to any one of them is to any other group of living birds;
two species of rheas are closely related; emu and cassoary are
closely related but less so than the two rhea species; kiwi is
enigmatic but may be closer to the tinamous than any other group;
and the tinamous are not closely related to the large ratites.
(KL)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ cassowaries/ rheas/ kiwis/ tinamous

27. Stapel S; Leunissen J; Versteeg M; Wattel J; and de Jong W.
Ratites as oldest offshoot of avian stem - evidence from
alpha-crystallin A sequences. Nature 1984; 311(5983): 257-259.
English; 24 ref.; 9603
One of the most disputed issues in avian phylogeny is the origin
of the ratites, the large flightless birds of the Southern
Hemisphere. It is still not generally agreed whether the
ostriches, rheas, emus and cassowaries, and probably kiwis, form
a natural, monophyletic group, although much recent evidence
supports this view. Also, their phylogenetic relationship with
the other avian orders remains unresolved; comparative protein
sequence studies might shed new light on this problem. Therefore,
we determined the amino acid sequence of the eye lens protein
alpha-crystallin A in ostrich, rhea and emu, and in
representatives of 13 other avian orders. Comparison of these
sequences with known alpha A sequences of mammals, reptiles, frog
and dogfish provides strong evidence that the ratites, as a
monphyletic assemblage, represent the first offshoot of the avian
line. (Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ evolution

28. Stocker G and Irvine A. Seed dispersal by cassowaries
(Casuarius casuarius) in north Queensland's rainforests.
Biotropica 1983; 15(3): 170-176.
18 ref
Fresh undisturbed dung piles were collected monthly from July
1977 to July 1979. Numbers of large (_0.5 cm diam.) seeds were
recorded and all the collected material was placed in pots in a
heated greenhouse. Seedlings were identified and numbers of each
species recorded after a minimum of 7 months. Seeds of 78
species were identified in the dung, of which 70 germinated.
Results showed that cassowaries are dependent for their survival
on the fruit of rainforest trees. These birds are the only extant
frugivores large enough to disperse effectively many of the plant 
species in the rainforests of this region.
Casuarius casuarius/ Birds/ Biology/ Casuarius/ Vegetation
types/ Rain forest/ Australia, Queensland/ Seed/ Seed dispersal