Rhea Bibliography
Compiled by Ken Ladd
Last update: August 16, 1996
96
References
1. Avian influenza virus in ratites--1993. Foreign Animal
Disease Report 1993; 21(4): 9-10.
emus/ rhea/ avian influenzavirus/ epidemiology/ usa
2. Aitken I and Survashe B. A procedure for location and
removal of the lachrymal and Harderian glands of avian species.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 1976; 53A(2): 193-195.
English; 6 ref; 9601
Experimental surgery/ lacrimal
apparatus/ conjunctiva/ fowls/ parrots/ pigeons/ Rhea/ Sparrow
3. Baccetti B; Burrini A; and Falchetti E. Spermatozoa and
relationships in Palaeognath birds. Biology of the Cell 1991;
71(1-2): 209-16.
In this paper the authors describe the ultrastructure of the
mature spermatozoon and the spermatid in Struthio camelus and
Dromaius novaehollandiae. The first species is characterized by a
rod-like perforatorium within an endonuclear canal in the
anterior third of the nucleus, while the second is characterized
by an extremely reduced completely extranuclear perforatorium.
Other differences are in the sperm dimensions, the number of
mitochondria and the length of the axonemal accessory fibers.
Considering both the present data and previous findings,
Palaeognath birds appear to be a peculiar and monophyletic group,
characterized by: 1), a conical acrosome surrounding the nucleus;
2), a fibrous sheath around most of the axoneme; and 3), an
elongated distal centriole occupying the entire midpiece. Within
this group, Tinamiformes seem to be more primitive than
Struthioniformes. In the latter order Dromaius is distinctly
different from the reduced Struthio and Rhea which are closely
related to one another by the presence of a rod-like endonuclear
perforatorium.
Birds/ Microscopy, Electron, Scanning/ Spermatogenesis/ Spermatids
ultrastructure/ Spermatozoa ultrastructure
4. Bermudez A and Hopkins B. Hemoglobinuric nephrosis in a rhea
(Rhea americana). Avian Diseases 1995; 39(3): 661-665.
English; 17 ref.
An eighteen-month-old female rhea (Rhea americana) was presented
dead for necropsy. The owner reported having observed blood in
the droppings. Gross examination revealed a rhea in good body
condition with a copious amount of frank blood in the cloaca.
Large masses of matted fescue grass (Festuca spp.) distended the
ventriculus and jejunum. No hemmorrhage was evident in the
digestive tract, which was otherwise void of ingesta. The kidneys
were dark brown in color. Renal histopathology revealed a severe
accumulation of eosinophilic pigment in the tubular epithelial
cells of the proximal convoluted tubules, with tubular nephrosis
and eosinophilic casts in the collecting tubules. It was
concluded that the renal pigment was hemoglobin and not
myoglobin, based on lack of evidence of muscle injury and the
severe erythrophagocytosis evident in hepatic macrophages. The
renal pigment also stained positive with the hemoglobin-specific
Okajima stain. Hemoglobinuric nephrosis has not previously been
reported in an avian species. (Author's abstract)
rheas/ hemoglobinuric nephrosis
5. Bezuidenhout A; Soley J; Groenewald H; and Burger W.
Sperm-storage tubules in the vagina of the ostrich (Struthio
camelus). Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 1995;
62(3): 193-199.
English; 22 ref.; 9603
Sperm-storage tubules have been described in a number of species
of birds. The presence of these tubules in the Rhea has been
mentioned, but no description of these structures in ratites is
available. The purpose of this study was to determine the
presence and morphology of sperm-storage tubules in the vagina of
the ostrich. The study was performed with the use of conventional
light- and electron-microscopic techniques. Sperm-storage tubules
were located in a 200-mm-wide band of the vagina adjacent to the
utero-vaginal junction. The tubules were mostly branched and
slightly coiled and lined by columnar epithelial cells. The cells
contained a basal nucleus and displayed extensive apical
junctional complexes. TEM revealed sperm in all the tubules
examined. (Author's abstract)
ostriches/ sperm-storage tubules/ vagina
6. Boggs D and Birchard G. Relationship between haemoglobin O2
oxygen affinity and the ventilatory response to hypoxia in the
rhea and pheasant. Journal of Experimental Biology 1983; 102:
347-352.
2 p. ref.
7. Borgarenko L; Dzhuraev A; and Galina Z. Ostrich mortality
due to filariasis. Izvestiya Akademii Nauk Tadzhikskoi SSR,
Biologicheskie Nauki. 1982; 4: 89-90.
Russian; 2 ref; 9601
Two Rhea americana brought to the Dushanbe Zoopark from the
Askaniya-Nova reserve, USSR, in 1980 died in May of that year.
Numerous Dicheilonema rheae were present in the lungs and between
the intercostal muscles. This parasite was previously unknown in
Tajikistan; it is described.
parasites/ helminths/ Birds/ Nematoda/ Dicheilonema rheae/ Rhea
americana
8. Bruning D. The Greater Rhea chick and egg delivery route.
Natural History 1973; 82: 68-75.
KL1-
9. Bruning D. Social structure and reproductive behavior in the
Greater Rhea. The Living Bird 1974; 13: 251-294.
KL1-
10. Budras K; Hullinger R; Rautenfeld D von; and Berens von
Rautenfeld D. Lymph heart musculature in birds.
Journal-of-Morphology 1987; 191(1): 77-87.
37 ref., 3 pl
The lymph heart is a paired organ located dorsal to the
transverse process of the first two free caudal vertebrae. They
propel lymph in the embryo, and this function persists in adults
of many species. They degenerate in fowl, and are only vestigial
in pigeon (corpora lymphospongiosa phalli). The authors examined
domestic duck and goose, also emu and rhea. Muscle cells differed
in structure from myocardial and skeletal muscle cells, and most
closely resembled smooth muscle. Innervation of the lymph heart
is described.
Tissue ultrastructure/ Duck/ Goose/ Lymphatic system/ Bird/ Lymph
heart/ Muscle tissue/ Ultrastructure
11. Budras K and Meier U. The epididymis and its development in
ratite birds (ostrich, emus, rhea). Anatomy and Embryology 1981;
162(3): 281-299.
English; 37 ref; 9603
The epididymis of ratitae is subdivided into a main part and an
appendix epididymidis. The appendix epididymidis consists of the
ductus aberrans and ductuli aberrantes. The ductus aberrans is
the cranial continuation of the ductus epididymidis. The appendix
epididymidis is cranially attached to the adrenal gland. In the
main part of the epididymis the largest part of the rete testis
is found.
The rete testis is composed of an intratesticular rete (also
named tubuli recti), an intracapsular rete (with a longitudinal
cistern and a true rete), and an extratesticular rete
(predominantly consisting of approximately 20 longitudinal
channels). The rete testis develops most likely embryonally from
buds of the glomerular capsules of the mesonephros. The ductuli
efferentes proximales also arise from these capsules, while the
ductuli efferentes distales develop from the proximal and distal
tubules and intermediate-segments of the mesonephros. The ductus
epididymidis originates from the Wolffian duct and meanders
dorsolaterally through the epididymis.
ostriches/ rheas/ emus/ epididymis
12. Bush M; Hughes JJr; Ensley P; and James AJr. Fracture repair
in exotics using internal fixation. Journal of the American
Animal Hospital Association 1976; 12(6): 746-753.
English; 9601
Liver/ fractures/ surgery/ animal diseases/ zoo
animals/ Rhea/ Felidae/ TRAGELAPHUS STREPSICEROS/ Wolf/ Kudu
13. Cajal J. The lesser rhea in the Argentine puna region:
Present situation. Biological Conservation 1988; 45(2): 81-91.
English
The American ostriches Rhea americana and Pterocnemia pennata
comprise an important item of the wildlife trade in Argentina. In
addition to the trade in animal products, their eggs are also
collected for food by local settlers. Very little is known about
the distribution, densities, and ecology of these species. The
present paper deals with habitat use, diet and population density
of the subspecies P. p. garleppi which is located in the Andean
region, between 3000 and 4000 m. These animals are entirely
herbivorous and occupy open grasslands on the plains as well as
rocky slopes and ravines with dense shrub cover. Studies reveal
very low population densities which fluctuate considerably from
year to year.
habitat utilization/ population density/ diets/ Pterocnemia pennata
garleppi/ Argentina, Andes Mountains.
14. Campodonico, P and Masson, C. Breeding and production of
ratites . Maisons-Alfort, France: CIRAD-EMVT; 1992; 98 pp.
French; 117 ref.
The plumage, body weight, conformation and voice patterns of the
ostrich, cassowary, rhea and emu and the natural habitats of
these birds are described. Details are given of behaviour,
diseases, nutrition, reproductive season and performance in
captivity, AI, laying performance, incubation, hatching and
management, breeding history and the production of feathers,
meat, skins, eggs and cooking oil. Their potential for use as a
tourist attraction is discussed, and economic aspects are
considered.
plumage/ body weight/ reproduction/ meat
production/ behaviour/ management/ ostriches/ cassowaries/ rheas/ emus/
tropics/ breeding/ animal production/ ratites/ production
15. Campodonico P and Masson C. Nutrition and reproduction of
ostriches. 3. Nutrition. Bulletin des G.T.V. 1990; (No. 4):
73-76.
French
Recommendations are given for the nutrition of the 4 main
struthioniformes in captivity (ostrich, rhea, emu and cassowary)
based on information from 52 zoos worldwide followed by examples
of diets provided in ostrich farms.
Struthionidae/ nutrition/ Ostriches
16. Campodonico P and Masson C. Ostrich husbandry. Bulletin des
G.T.V. 1990; (No. 2 ): 59-73.
French
The first part of this series on ostrich husbandry summarizes
knowledge on the geographical distribution of ostriches, emus,
rheas and cassowaries, their adaptability to captivity, diseases
and parasites and their treatment, and anaesthesia.
anaesthesia/ anthelmintics/ drug
therapy/ parasitoses/ ostriches/ diseases/ Struthioniformes/ birds/
parasites/ general account
17. Camus A; Cho D-Y; Poston R; Paulsen D; Oliver J; Law J; and
Tully T. Chlamydiosis in commercial rheas (Rhea americana). Avian
Diseases 1994; 38(3): 666-671.
English; 11 ref.
Mild to marked splenomegaly was observed in three of four rheas
that died acutely in three unrelated commercial ratite facilities
in Southeastern Louisiana. Mortalities occurred within a 5-week
period in birds ranging from 2 months to 3 years of age.
Multifocal hepatic and splenic necrosis with mononuclear cell
infiltrates, typical of chlamydiosis in other avian species, was
present on histopathologic sections. The diagnoses were
confirmed by demonstration of inclusion bodies in splenic
impression smears and fluorescent-antibody testing performed on
Vero cell cultures.
Chlamydia/ rheas/ histopathology
18. Carter S. Ostriches and rhea on a small farm in Ohio. Small
Farm Today 1994; 11(4): 36-38.
ostriches/ rhea/ livestock farming/ small farms/ ohio
19. Carter S. Poultry researchers turn attention to ratites.
Small Farm Today 1994; 11(4): 42-44.
ostriches/ rhea/ emus/ animal husbandry/ animal
breeding/ agricultural research
20. Cavagna G; Heglund N; and Taylor C. Mechanical work in
terrestrial locomotion: two basic mechanisms for minimizing
energy expenditure. American Journal of Physiology 1977; 233(5):
R243-261.
The work done during each step to lift and to reaccelerate (in
the forward direction) and center of mass has been measured
during locomotion in bipeds (rhea and turkey), quadrupeds (dogs,
stump-tailed macaques, and ram), and hoppers (kangaroo and
springhare). Walking, in all animals (as in man), involves an
alternate transfer between gravitational-potential energy and
kinetic energy within each stride (as takes place in a
pendulum). This transfer is greatest at intermediate walking
speeds and can account for up to 70% of the total energy changes
taking place within a stride, leaving only 30% to be supplied by
muscles. No kinetic-gravitational energy transfer takes place
during running, hopping, and trotting, but energy is conserved
by another mechanism: an elastic "bounce" of the body. Galloping
animals utilize a combination of these two energy-conserving
mechanisms. During running, trotting, hopping, and galloping, 1)
the power per unit weight required to maintain the forward speed
of the center of mass is almost the same in all the species
studied; 2) the power per unit weight required to lift the center
of mass is almost independent of speed; and 3) the sum of these
two powers is almost a linear function of speed.
Birds/ Dogs/ Goats/ Haplorhini/ Kangaroos/ Mathematics/ Rodentia
/ Species Specificity/ Turkeys/ *Biomechanics/ *Energy
Metabolism/ *Locomotion
21. Cracraft J. Phylogeny and evolution of the ratite birds.
Ibis 1974; 116(4): 494-521.
English; 95 ref.
Postulated evolutionary trends by the author (using skeletal
characters) are used to construct a theory of relationships. The
author used the premise that phylogenetic affinity can be
demonstrated only by shared character-states and that primitive
character-states held in common by different taxa provide no
information. Character analysis - evolutionary trends in the
palaeognath skeleton - looked at cranial and postcranial
characters. (KL)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ cassowaries/ rheas/ kiwis/ tinamous
22. Crawford M. The oldest birds, the newest agribusiness. Small
Farm Today 1992; 9(4): 36.
English
ostriches/ emus/ rhea/ livestock enterprises/ agribusiness
23. Dani, SU, Coordenação/ edição. A ema (Rhea americana):
biologia, manejo e conservação. Andrade, Marco Antônio de,
Colaboração. Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais Brasil: fundação
ACANGÚA; 1993; 136 p. (Coleçao Manejo da Vida Silvestre; v.
Número 1).
Portuguese, illustrated. KL+
On the biology, management and conservation of Rhea americana.
There are descriptions of original breeding techniques and
facilities.
rheas
24. Dewit J. Mortality of Rheas Caused by a Synchamus-Trachea
Infection. Veterinary Quarterly 1995; 17(1): 39-40.
English Article
Over the last 3 years, chronic respiratory distress occurred
occasionally in young birds on a farm with about one hundred
Rheas americana. The sick Rheas died after 1 to 2 months,
Post-mortem examination of a 7-week-old Rhea showed severe
tracheitis, This tracheitis was caused by Synchamus trachea
worms, which were present in large numbers, Therapy with
fenbendazole cured the respiratory distress of the other Rheas
within a few days.
25. Dhillon A. Histomoniasis in a captive great rhea (Rhea
americana). Journal-of-Wildlife-Diseases 1983; 19(3): 274.
4 ref
Birds/ Histomonas meleagridis/ Rhea americana/ USA/ Aviary
birds/ Struthioniformes
26. Drenowatz, C, Editor. The ratite encyclopedia: Ostrich, emu,
rhea. 1st ed. San Antonio: Ratite Records; 1995; 478 pp.
English; bibliography at back for some chapters; 9606
Covers a wide variety of subjects written by researchers,
veterinarians and ranchers. Subjects covered: history and
geography (C. Drenowatx, J. Sales, D.V. Sarasqueta and A.
Weilbrenner); anatomy of ostriches, emus & rheas (B.A. Hopkins
and G.M. Constantinescu); ratite genetics (B. Gallaway, J.C.
Patton, K. Coldwell and W. Sealey); ratite reproduction (P.C.
Smith); the ratite egg (D.C. Deeming); incubation & hatching (J.
Brake and B. Rosseland); candling (L. Kinder); ostrich breeder
management (S. Barron); ostrich chick rearing (S. Dunn); ostrich
meat (C. Morris); ostrich feathers (J. Sales); emu breeder
management (V. Brackett); emu chick rearing (P. Jodoin); working
emus (K. Robinson); emu meat (L. Thompson); emu oil (S.
Birkbeck); raising rheas (M.L. Stropes and C. Ramsey); free-range
rheas (K. Bader); rhea oil (D. Fezler); ratite meat (H.
Schmeider, W.J. Stadelman, R.L. Adams, R.F. Ghiselli, K.W.
McMillin and J. Berry); farm design and layout (S. Flowers and R.
Gurss); transportation and handling (L. Hague); microchip
identification (J.R. Wade and J.A. Mayhall); diseases of ratites
(A. Raines); working with your veterinarian (T. Coble); basic
nutrition of ratites (D.H. Sigler); biosecurity (R. Terry);
record-keeping & managment (C. Elrod); insurance (A. Fairly); tax
considerations (W.G. Miller and D.L. Sisson); and legal aspects
(J.W. Ledbetter).
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ meat/ feathers/ oil/ chicks/ housing/
farming/ nutrition/ eggs/ incubation/ hatching/ reproduction/ genetics/
diseases/ record keeping
27. Drew, M. Ostrich medicine and surgery: The basics.
California and Nevada Veterinary Medical Associations' Joint
Scientific Seminar and Exposition; October 25-27, 1991; Reno,
Nevada. 325-357.
KL1+
Gives a general description of ostriches (4 subspecies), emu,
rhea (2 species) and cassowary (3 species). Discusses ostrich
management including nutrition, management of adults, hatchery
and incubation management, and chick managment. Clinical medicine
for ratites is reviewed with discussion of restraint and
anesthesia, hematology and serum chemistry, pediatrics,
reproductive disease and problems, sexing, parasitic diseases,
viral diseases, bacterial diseases, fungal diseases, traumatic
injuries, abdominal surgery, and orthopedics. Tables on- 1)
Incubation and hathcer environmental condition recommendation; 2)
Drugs and dosages for ratite immoblization; 3) Hematology for
ostriches; 4) Serum chemistry for ostriches; and 5) Serum
chemistry values for emus. There is an extensive bibliography.
Ostriches/ Emus/ Rheas/ Cassowaries/ Ratites/ Hematology/ Serum
chemistry/ Ostrich management/ Parasitic diseases/ Viral
diseases/ Bacterial Diseases/ Traumatic injuries/ Fungal
diseases/ Surgery/ Pediatrics/ Immoblization
28. Ewing M; Yonzon M; Page R; Brown T; and Davidson W.
Deletrocephalus-Dimidiatus Infestation in an Adult Rhea
(Pterocnemia-Pennata). Avian Diseases 1995; 39(2): 441-443.
English; 8 ref.
Infection with the nematode Deletrocephalus dimidiatus was found
in the distal small and proximal large intestines of,
30-month-old female rhea that had died after a prolonged illness.
Numerous strongyle-like eggs were found on fecal flotation.
Possible treatments include fenbendazole (60 ppm in water) and
ivermectin (200 mg/ kg). preventive measures such as artificial
incubation, segregation of chicks from adults, and placing chicks
in uncontaminated environments may help slow or stop the
transmission of the parasite.
Rheas/ nematodes
29. Feder F. Microscopic anatomy of the digestive system in the
nandu (Rhea americana). Anatomischer Anzeiger 1972; 132(3):
250-265.
German
Beak anatomy and histology/ Bursa of Fabricius anatomy and
histology/ Cecum cytology/ Crop, Avian anatomy and
histology/ Duodenum cytology/ Esophagus anatomy and
histology/ Esophagus cytology/ Intestines anatomy and
histology/ Liver anatomy and histology/ Pancreas anatomy and
histology/ Stomach, Avian anatomy and histology/ Tongue anatomy and
histology/ Tongue cytology/ *Birds anatomy and histology/ *Digestive
System anatomy and histology
30. Fezler D. Rhea oil. Canadian Ostrich 1995; 4(2): 48-50, 61.
KL1+
Rhea oil is the rendered and refined fat (adipose tissue) of
rheas. Adipose is mainly deposited around the stomach and
intestine, across the rump and on both sides of the breast bone.
About 3 to 15 pounds of fat can be harvested from a yearling male
or about 10% of body weight. Four proposed grades for rhea oil
are listed with potential uses: non-food grade - cutting fluid,
leather conditioner; food grade - nutritional supplementation;
cosmetic grade - skin preparations; pharmaceutical grade - burn
and post-operative creams, analgesic creams, parenteral
medications. The fatty acid profile of rhea oil is discussed (two
basic profiles) and the potential to use of the profile as
diagnostic tool. The various potential uses of the oil are
discussed.
rhea oil
31. Fezler D. Rhea oil: The most versatile and useful product of
the Rhea americana. Ratite Journal 1994; 2(12): 53,55.
KL+
Lists five potential uses for the oil: nutritional
supplementation, machining cutting fluid, leather conditioning
and penetrating oil, cosmetics and analgesic, anti-inflammatory
product. Discusses the refining challenge, grades, processing and
properties of rhea oil. Table of grades and potential uses. Graph
of fatty acid comparison of rhea and emu oil.
rheas/ emus/ rhea oil/ emu oil
32. Fowler, ME. Clinical anatomy of ratites. Proceedings of the
Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians;
September 1-5, 1992; New Orleans. Florida: Association of Avian
Veterinarians; 1992 307-309.
English; 1 ref.; 9603
Avian practitioners may be asked to provide medical care for
numerous species of birds. Ratites (ostrich, emu, rhea, cassowary
and kiwi) have become popular in private ownership during the
past few years. A ratite-rearing industry provides an alternative
to other livestock enterprises. Practitioners should have a basic
understanding of ratite anatomy in order to protect themselves
from the bird's offensive and defensive blows with the feet, and
to understand how to collect laboratory samples, administer
medication, evaluate radiographs, perform surgery and distinguish
between normal and abnormal organs at necropsy. A limited amount
of material can be covered in this presentation; for more
information refer to reference 1. (Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ anatomy
33. Fowler M. Comparative clinical anatomy of ratites. Journal
of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 1991; 22(2): 204-227.
English; 38 ref
Ratites, particularly the ostrich (Struthio camelus) and emu
(Dromaius novaehollandiae), have become popular as livestock.
This paper provides a single source of information based on the
author's dissections of the ostrich, emu, and rhea (Rhea
americana), selected data accumulated from museum specimens, and
additional information extracted from the literature. The
musculoskeletal, digestive, and reproductive systems are
emphasized because of their importance in clinical medicine and
management of these animals. All ratites have heavily muscled
legs for running and defence against enemies. Unique
characteristics are a noncarinate sternum and lack of breast
muscles. Stomach and intestinal morphology is highly variable
among the families represented. All male ratites have an
intromittent organ (phallus), and ostrich and emu females have a
diminutive organ.
Apterygiformes/ Rheiformes/ Casuariformes/ Rhea/ Struthioniformes/ ostriches/
anatomy/ emu
34. Frankenhuis M and de Villeneuve V. Avian heart disease in
the Blijdorp Zoological Gardens; partial heart block in a nandu
(Rhea americana) (author's transl). Tijdschrift voor
Diergeneeskunde 1982; 107(2): 59-62.
Dutch
Bird Diseases pathology/ Birds/ English Abstract/ Heart Block
diagnosis/ Heart Block pathology/ Myocardium pathology/ *Animals,
Zoo/ *Bird Diseases diagnosis/ *Heart Block veterinary
35. Geissler H and Geringer J. Diagnosis of aspergillosis using
agar gel precipitation in zoo and pet birds. Tierarztliche
Umschau 1977; 32(7): 359-361.
German; 1 tab.; 12 ref; 9601
A str. of Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from a dead nandu (Rhea
americana) was used for antigen production and Agapornis
roseicollis and Melopsittacus undulatus were used as
experimental animals in the experiments described.
immunology/ Aviary birds/ IMMUNODIFFUSION TESTS/ Mycoses/ zoo
animals/ birds/ Aspergillus
fumigatus/ Fungi/ Psittaciformes/ Aspergillus/ Aspergillus fumigatus
on nandu/ nandu/ Aspergillus fumigatus on birds/ agar gel
precipitation test
36. Grimes, JE and Arizmendi, F. Case reports of ratite
chlamydiosis and update on the Chlamydias. Kornelsen, MJ.
Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian
Veterinarians; September 28-30, 1994; Rena, Nevada. PO Box
18372/ Orlando/ FL 32861: Association Avian Veterinarians; 1994
133-140.
English; 10 ref.
Chlamydial infections were diagnosed in 7 dead rheas of various
ages from six different geographical regions of Texas during May,
July, August, October, and December 1993 by examinations of
visceral organ tissues. Sudden death was the most common
occurrence, with little evidence of clinical disease. Gross
lesions were fibrinous airsacculitis, hepatomegaly, peritonitis,
pulmonary congestion, and a most remarkable splenomegaly.
Histopathologic examination revealed chronic necrotizing
hepatitis and necrotizing splenitis with plasmacytosis. Serologic
testing of rheas associated with some of the rhea deaths revealed
that infection was widespread. Chlamydiae were isolated from a
cloacal swab from an adult female ostrich which had low serologic
titers.
In the updating on the Chlamydias, there is a newly recognized
species, Chlamydia pecorum, found in cattle and sheep. Infections
of C. trachomatis are now known to also occur in swine, and
koalas are now known to be infected by C. pneumoniae.
rheas/ chlamydiosis/ ostriches
37. . Order Rheiformes Griner, LA. Pathology of Zoo Animals.
[San Diego]: Zoological Society of San Diego; 107-116.
English; 0 ref; 9606
The book reviews necropsies performed over a fourteen-year period
at the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Wild Animal Park. This chapter
(11), gives a brief overview of the rhea which is followed by
discussion under the broader headings of Darwin's rheas, diseases
of adult Darwin's rheas, and diseases of common rheas.
Under Darwin's rheas the discussion is under the headings
malnutrition and infectious diseases. One table provides
statistics on the sex and age of the birds necropsied. A second
table indicates common diseases of rhea chick up to six months of
age between the years 1972 and 1977.
For diseases of adult Darwin's rheas, the discussion is under the
headings: stress, trauma and malnutrition; infectious diseases;
and systemic diseases.
Diseases of common rheas are discussed under: stress, trauma and
malnutrition; infectious diseases and parasites; and systemic
diseases.
rheas/ diseases
38. Grone A; Swayne D; and Nagode L. Hypophosphatemic rickets in
rheas (Rhea americana). Veterinary Pathology 1995; 32(3):
324-327.
English
Rickets was diagnosed in 11 rheas (Rhea americana) from 4 flocks
in Ohio, USA. The rachitic birds had pliable bones with prominent
valgus or varus deformation of the femoral bone and/ or the
tibiotarsal bone, marked thickening of the metaphyseal plates and
frequent fractures. Histopathologically, bones of rachitic birds
showed marked retention of cartilage core within the growth
plate, mainly because of a significant lengthening of the
hypertrophied zone of the growth plate in relation to the
remaining zones. Feed analysis showed that rachitic birds were
fed on diets which had higher calcium/ phosphorus ratios (1.38 up
to 4.32) than non-rachitic birds (0.65). Rachitic birds had
hypophosphataemia (3.0 to 4.7 mg/ dl) and mild hypocalcaemia
compared to non-rachitic birds, which had serum phosphorus
concentrations of 8.5 to 8.7 mg/ dl. 25- (OH)-vitamin D
concentrations were similar in rachitic and non-rachitic birds.
calcium/ phosphorus/ rickets/ hypophosphatemic
rickets/ hypocalcaemia/ hypophosphataemia/ bones/ deficiency
/ pathology/ blood/ rhea ; birds
39. Gupta B and Trapp A. Traumatic proventriculitis in a rhea
(Rhea americana). Avian Diseases 1971; 15(2): 408-412.
40. Hanley, RS, Woods, LW, Stillian, DJ, and Dumonceaux, GA.
Serpulina-like spirochetes and flagellated protozoa associated
with a necrotizing typhlitis in the rhea (Rhea americana).
Kornelsen, MJ. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the
Association of Avian Veterinarians; September 28-30, 1994; Rena,
Nevada. PO Box 18372/ Orlando/ FL 32861: Association Avian
Veterinarians; 1994 157-162.
English; 21 ref.
Severe necrotizing typhlitis and enterocolitis have been observed
in eight rheas (Rhea americana) from four ranches. Rheas with
histories of depression and anorexia were presented to the
California Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory System (CVDLS) for
necropsy. Necropsies revealed varying degrees of necrotizing
typhlitis and enterocolitis. Bacteriologic, parasitologic and
histologic examinations revealed the presence of spirochetes and
trichomoas-like organisms in the lumen and mucosa of the ceca of
the birds. The remaining rheas in three flocks were treated with
Flagyl (metronidazole) and antibiotic therapy. Prior to
treatment, flock mortality averaged 50%. After treatment, no
further deaths occurred in the flocks.
A retrospective review of rhea submissions from the previous 3
years revealed 41% (13 of 31) or the rhea chick submissions
between 6 and 52 weeks of age were diagnosed with enteritis
associated with spirochetsial etiology, protozoal etiology, or
both. Because of swift onset and high mortality associated with
the combined infection of the spirochetes and Trichomonas
species, earlly detection and treatment is crucial. (Authors'
interpretive summary)
rheas/ typhlitis/ enterocolitis
41. Henrickson R. Cryptococcosis in man and captive exotic
animals. Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 1973; 3(1): 27-30.
English; 24 ref; 9601
A general account of the history of Cryptococcus neoformans, its
habitat, association with birds nest, presence in soil, and
symptoms of cryptococcosis in man, is followed a report of an
experiment in which disseminated cryptococcosis was induced in
marmoset monkeys by feeding with 100 million yeast cells. The
sp. was isolated from the tissues of 2 adult male peccaries
(Tayassu tajacu) shortly after signs of paralysis were seen, and
from the soil of their pen and that of a rheas which had
previously inhabited the peccary pen. Dyspnoea and a large,
nasal, cryptococcal granuloma developed in a 1-yr-old female
nouflon sheep housed adjacent to the peccary pen.
experimental infection/ soil/ monkeys/ sheep/ Cryptococcus
neoformans/ Cryptococcus neoformans on monkey/ Cryptococcus
neoformans on peccary/ Cryptococcus neoformans in
soil/ Cryptococcus neoformans on sheep/ peccary
42. Hicks, KD. Ratite reproduction. Proceedings of the Annual
Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians; September
1-5, 1992; New Orleans. Florida: Association of Avian
Veterinarians; 1992 318-325.
English; 0 ref.; 9603
This paper focuses on an overview of ratite reproduction
including: behavior, anatomy, physiology, productivity, the egg,
reproductive failure, reproductive disease and incubation.
(Author's abstract)
ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ ratites/ reproduction/ anatomy/ physiology/ disease
43. Houde P. Ostrich ancestors found in the Northern Hemisphere
suggest new hypothesis of ratite origins. Nature 1986; 324(6097):
563-565.
English; 18 ref.; 9603
Modern ratites (ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, and kiwis)
are flightless birds which have a palatal structure termed
'palaeognathous' and are found on daughter-landmasses of the
Mesozoic supercontinent Gondwanaland. It has been suggested that
a single flightless ancestor, widely distributed in Gondwanaland,
gave rise to the various lineages of ratite birds. The temporal
calibration of the DNA molecular clock is primarily based on the
divergence of ratites, and depends on the valididty of the
hypothesis. Newly studied fossils suggest that the ancestors of
ostriches are instead among a group of North American and
European birds, the 'Lithornis-cohort', that had the potential of
flight and from which the kiwis may have arisen separately.
(Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ cassowaries/ kiwis/ evolution
44. Huchzermeyer, FW. Ostrich diseases 1st ed. Onderstepoort,
Republic of South Africa: Agricultural Research Council; 1994;
121 p.
References. KL1+
This book was originally prepared for a lecture given to
veterinarians having an interest in ostrich diseases. The author
indicates that it is "based on personal experience in ostrich
pathology, a general poultry pathology background and a
literature survey and contains only conditions that have either
been reported in the literature or actually seen locally and is
almost free of interpolations or speculations from poultry
pathology." Data from emus and rheas are included in some cases.
The book is divided into 4 parts - introduction, transmissible
diseases, nutritional diseases, and miscellaneous - with
extensive references in the appendix. Under transmissible disease
are sections on viral infections, bacterial infections, fungal
infections, protozoal infections, and metazoan parasites. For
nutritional diseases the sections are deficiencies and poisoning.
Miscellaneous covers some pathological conditions, hematology,
biochemistry, immobilization and anesthesia, and physiological
parameters to name a few.
45. Huq N; Tseng A; and Chapman G. Partial amino acid sequence
of osteocalcin from an extinct species of ratite bird.
Biochemistry International 1990; 21(3): 491-496.
English
Osteocalcin the major gamma carboxyglutamic acid containing
protein of vertebrate bone has been purified from the bones of a
specimen of Pachyornis elephantopus, a species of the extinct
class of New Zealand ratite birds, the moas. The sequence of the
N-terminal region of moa osteocalcin was determined using gas
phase N-terminal sequencing. The N-terminal sequences of the
ostrich and rhea osteocalcins were also determined. Alignment of
the N-terminal sequence of osteocalcin from the extinct moa
against the osteocalcins of the extant ostrich, rhea and emu
reveals the homology amongst the ratite species is greater than
the homology with the chicken osteocalcin.
Pachyornis
Elephantopus/ Ostrich/ Rhea/ Emu/ Chicken/ Phylogeny/ Holocene/ Molecular
Sequence Data/ New Zealand
46. Ippen, R. Typhlohepatitis [histomoniasis] in zoo birds.
Ippen, R and Schroder, HD. Erkrankungen der Zootiere.
Verhandlungsbericht des 25. Internationalen Symposiums uber die
Erkrankungen der Zootiere ; 11. Mai bis 15. Mai 1983; Wien.
Berlin, German Democratic Republic: Akademie-Verlag; 1983
135-138.
19 ref
Dissection of zoobirds from the Berlin Zoological Garden (GDR)
and other zoos has shown Histomonas to be present in Pavoninae,
Phasianus, Coturnix, Meleagridinae, Lyrurus and Alectoris. In
addition to the galliform birds, which are known to be affected
by histomoniasis, the infection was also found in Rhea
(Struthioniformes) and Otididae (Gruiformes). It is therefore
important to look out for further possible hosts during autopsy
examinations of zoobirds. The pathology is briefly described.
Liver diseases/ Candida/ Zoo animals/ Histomonas meleagridis/ Aviary
birds/ Birds/ Zoo birds/ German Democratic Republic/ New host
records/ Pathology/ Animal pathology
47. Jensen, JM, Johnson, JH, and Weiner, ST. Husbandry and
medical management of ostriches, emus and rheas. College
Station, TX (P.O. Box 10541, College Station, TX 77842): Wildlife
and Exotic Animal Teleconsultants; 1992; 129 p.
English; ill.
Ostriches Diseases Treatment Handbooks, manuals, etc/ Rheidae
Diseases Treatment Handbooks, manuals, etc/ Emus Diseases
Treatment Handbooks, manuals, etc
48. Jorgensen J and Christensen J. The inner ear of the common
rhea (Rhea americana L.). Brain Behavior And Evolution 1989;
34(5): 273-280.
English
The morphology of the inner ear in rheas was examined by light
and electron microscopy. The shape is typically bird-like with
very long semicircular canals. The anterior and posterior
cristae have small septa cruciata. The vestibular sensory
epithelia contain two main types of hair cell innervation:
bouton-innervated hair cells and calyceal hair cells
characterized by a surrounding nerve calyx. The utricular macula
has a single zone of calyceal hair cells, while all other
previously examined birds, except the mute swan, have 2 zones.
The height of the tallest sensory hairs of the cristae is 20-30
mu-m. In the utricular and lagenar macula, the hairs are 5-7 mu-m
in the striola and 10-20 mu-m in the main parts of the sense
organs. Along the edges of the maculae the longest hairs may
reach 20-30 mu-m. The number of stereovilli on mature vestibular
hair cells is 40-60. The sensory hairs of the hearing organ, the
basilar papilla, are generally shorter but more numerous than the
vestibular sensory hairs. In the proximal end, the tallest of
the 175-200 stereovilli are 2.8-3.7 mu-m; in the distal end of
the papilla, the number of stereovilli decrease to 65- 100, and
their height increases gradually to 7.3-8.7 mu-m. The neural
sensory hairs are generally taller than those of the abneural
side.
Bird/ Mute Swan/ Vestibular Organ/ Labyrinth/ Innervation/ Sensory
Hair Cell/ Comparative Morphology/ Light Microscopy/ Electron
Microscopy
49. Kaneene J; Taylor R; Sikarskie J; Meyer T; and Richter N.
Disease patterns in the Detroit Zoo: a study of the avian
population from 1973 through 1983.
Journal-of-the-American-Veterinary-Medical-Association 1985;
187(11): 1129-1131.
10 ref
The mean population of birds during the study period was 469.
Overall annual morbidity rates were 12.5% to 21.5%, with spring
months having the highest rates. Annual mortality rates were
3.1% to 15.2%; 23.9% of the deaths were caused by microbial
agents (particularly Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, haemolytic
Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Aeromonas spp. and Proteus
spp.), 15.4% by trauma, and 42.5% by nondetermined causes. The
mute swan (Cygnus olor), mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos),
common gallinule (Gallinula chloropus), common rhea (Rhea
americana), and red-billed hornbill (Tockus erythrorhynchus) were
the 5 species most frequently affected in the 1032 deaths from
1973 to 1983. The most frequently isolated parasites were
Microtetramere spp., coccidian species, Diplotriaena spp., and
Trichomonia spp.
Swan/ Anseriformes/ Struthioniformes/ Coraciadiformes/ Gallinula
choropus/ Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae/ Escherichia
infection/ Salmonellosis/ Aeromonas/ Trauma/ Nutritional
disorders/ Mortality/ Bacterial diseases/ Zoo animals/ Birds/ Losses
50. Kember N; Kirkwood J; Duignan P; Godfrey D; and Spratt D.
Comparative cell kinetics of avian growth plates. Research in
Veterinary Science 1990; 49(3): 283-288.
8 ref
The cell kinetics of the cartilage growth plates in the chicken,
budgerigar and rhea derived from studies with tritiated thymidine
labelling were studied. Quantitative histological measurements
on growth plates from leg bones (tibiotarsus, tarsometatarsus and
a phalangeal bone) in a further five species of birds are
presented. Counts of flat cells and measurements of the average
diameter of hypertrophic cells were made for each growth plate.
These results are compared with values for the overall growth
rates of the bones. The variation in sizes of hypertrophic cells
was small and it is concluded that the largest factor in
determining the growth rate of an avian bone is the size of the
zone of flat cells.
Birds/ Psittaciformes/ Bones/ Growth/ fowls/ cartilage/ growth
plates
51. Kennedy M and Brenneman K. Enteritis Associated with a
Coronavirus-Like Agent in a Rhea (Rhea-Americana) Chick. Journal
of Avian Medicine and Surgery 1995; 9(2): 138-140.
English Article
A 6-week-old rhea (Rhea americana) chick experienced weakness and
ataxia of a few hours' duration followed by death. Histopathology
of the intestines revealed villous atrophy and fusion,
hyperplastic crypts, and inflammatory cell infiltrate in the
lamina propria. Intestinal epithelial cells contained
eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions. Coronavirus-like particles
were identified by electron microscopy from the intestinal
contents. This is the first report of coronavirus-like agents
associated with enteritis in a rhea.
Ratite/ Rheas/ Coronavirus/ Intestinal villous atrophy/ Enteritis
52. Kilgore DJ; Bernstein M; and Schmidt Nielsen K. Brain
temperature in a large bird, the rhea. American Journal of
Physiology 1973; 225(3): 739-742.
Body Temperature Regulation/ Carotid Arteries physiology/ Models,
Biological/ Neck blood supply/ *Birds physiology/ *Body
Temperature/ *Brain physiology
53. Klos H; Langner H; Boenigk G; Wandelburg K; Pohl H; Grund S;
Eichberg J; and Steglich W. Chemical and physical studies on
eggshells of four species of running birds (Struthioniformes).
Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin 1976; 23A(5): 413-428.
German; 9601; 15 ref
Calcium/ Magnesium/ Sodium/ Strontium/ Copper/ Iron/ Silicon/ Manganese/
Phosphorus/ Carbonate/ Pigments/ Classification/ egg
shell/ Birds/ ostriches/ Rhea/ Struthioniformes/ Emu/ Cassowary
54. Kwiecien J; Smith D; Key D; Swinton J; and Smith ML.
Encephalitis attributed to larval migration of Baylisascaris
species in emus. Canadian Veterinary Journal 1993; 34(3):
176-178.
English; 14 ref
Seven emu chicks (Dromaius novaehollandiae) aged 10 week to 5
months were examined PM between July 1990 and January 1991. These
birds originated from a farm where 3 types of ratites (emu,
ostrich, rhea) were kept. All animals showed signs of ataxia,
incoordination and muscle weakness. No relevant gross lesions
were noted. Significant lesions were confined to the cerebellum.
The most consistent microscopic finding was perivascular cuffing
by mononuclear leukocytes. In one bird, 3 cross sections of a
nematode of approximately 60 µm in diameter were found. The
clinical symptoms and lesions were consistent with reports of
verminous encephalitis attributed to infection with
Baylisascaris. The possible source of infection could have been
racoons seen on the premises, although not in direct contact with
the birds.
Casuariiformes/ Case reports/ Pathology/ Nervous system
diseases/ Birds/ Parasite
migration/ EMUS/ Baylisascaris/ Encephalitis/ Nematoda/ Ascarididae/
Dromaiidae/ Canada
55. Lane R. Selecting your best ratites. Canadian Ostrich 1995;
4(2): 16-18.
KL1+
Poultry breeders have used line breeding to select for desirable
production parameters. Inbreeding, however, can result in a
dramatic drop in eggs laid and chicks hatched (inbreeding
depression). Unlike poultry, ratites have a relatively long
generation time, need more space, have a high dollar value, and
their pedigrees are unknown. DNA fingerprints have shown that the
North American emu, ostrich and rhea populations have a
relatively low level of genetic diversity. There is an increased
risk of inbreeding when randomly selecting pairs. This suggest
that ratite line breeding will be a much longer process with a
higher risk of inbreeding depresssion than poultry. Rapid gains
in desirable production parameters in ratites are still possible
using carefully developed line breeding. DNA fingerprinting can
be used to accurately define the degree of relationship between
any two birds or between birds in a group. This information can
then be used to select breeding pairs.
ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ ratites/ breeding/ DNA fingerprinting
56. Luthgen W. Gastric obstruction by a piece of wood in a young
rhea. Praktische Tierarzt 1977; 58(2): 93.
German; 9601
foreign bodies/ stomach diseases/ animal diseases/ zoo
animals/ Birds/ Struthioniformes
57. Martella M and Navarro J. Capturing and marking greater
rheas. Journal Of Field Ornithology 1992; 63(2): 117-120.
English
In 1989-1990, 14 Greater Rheas (Rhea americana) were
neck-collared at Cordoba province, Argentina. Birds were
stupefied during the night by a light-beam and then caught using
'boleadoras.' The marking device was a numbered adjustable
cattle-type PVC legband. This capture and banding technique
proved to be efficient and comparatively inexpensive, and could
be effective both for other ratites and some large mammals with
long legs.
Rhea Americana/ Mammal/ Field Method/ Argentina
58. Martella M; Renison D; and Navarro J. Vigilance In The
Greater Rhea: Effects Of Vegetation Height And Group Size.
Journal Of Field Ornithology 1995; 66(2): 215-220.
English; 9601
Wild adult greater rheas (rhea americana) were observed during
most of the non breeding season (may july), while feeding alone
or in groups in two different habitats: high vegetation (shrubs)
and low vegetation (herbaceous). in both habitats an individual's
percentage of time spent on vigilance behavior significantly
declined as group size increased, but in high vegetation
vigilance was lowest when group size was six and higher in
larger groups. vigilance was similar between sexes throughout the
day. vigilance was on average 11% greater in the high vegetation
habitat. vigilance increased from may to july.
Time budgets/ predation/ risk
59. Mason V. The future of food: is low fat going out of style.
Canadian Ostrich 1995; 4(4): 18-20.
KL+
Reviews what needs to be done to market ratite meat with respect
to current and future trends.
ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ meat
60. McLelland J. Anatomy of the avian cecum. Journal of
Experimental Zoology. 1989; Suppl. 3: 2-9.
English; 53 ref
The gross anatomy of the avian caeca is reviewed. In most birds,
right and left caeca arise laterally or ventrolaterally at the
junction of the small and large intestines. In a few species, the
caeca open into the rectum ventrally or dorsally. In many herons
and bitterns, only one caecum is present, and in the secretary
bird there are 2 pairs of caeca. Caeca are absent in woodpeckers,
hummingbirds, swifts, kingfishers, pigeons, mousebirds, cuckoos
and parrots. Caeca may be classified according to length into
long, moderately or poorly developed, and vestigial types. In
most birds, the caeca are simple tubular, structures with minor
variations in shape. However, in a few species, including the
ostrich, rheas, kiwis, some tinamous, the red-throated loon,
screamers, the satyr tragopan, the great bustard, and the
pin-tailed sandgrouse, the caeca are sacculated or have
diverticula. There is usually no correlation between the
development of the caeca and systematic position. Except in
grouse (Tetraonidae), in which the long caeca are related to the
fibre content of the diet, the correlation between caecal
development and diet is extremely limited. There is no
relationship between the size of the caeca and the length and
width of the rectum.
Caecum/ morphology/ birds/ reviews
61. McMillan E and Zellen G. Histomoniasis in a rhea. Canadian
Veterinary Journal 1991; 32(4): 244.
Four 4-week-old rheas, placed in a pen containing healthy
chickens of various ages, died within 3 weeks. PM examination of
one revealed severe typhlitis due to histomoniasis. The chickens
remained unaffected.
Birds/ rhea/ Histomonas/ Rheidae/ Mastigamoebidae
/ Sarcomastigophora/ mortality
62. Mercolli C and Yanosky A. Calls Of The Common Rhea Americana
(Aves, Rheidae) In Argentina. Revista De Biologia Tropical 1994;
42(3): 759-760.
Spanish; 9601
Vocalizations of the greater rhea (rhea americana) were studied
at el bagual ecological reserve, northeastern argentina, during
daytime (july 1991 june 1992). they vocalize during harem
formation and while incubating. vocalizations are emitted more
frequently in the first half of the day, and there are none
during the night. it is hypothesized that they are used both for
female attraction and nesting territoriality.
Vocalizations/ greater rhea/ argentina
63. Moraes Fd and Valadao C. Use of xylazine, ketamine,
midazolam and isoflurane in the amputation of the wing of a rhea
(Rhea americana). Ciencia Veterinaria Jaboticabal 1990; 4(2):
9-10.
rhea/ anaesthesia/ birds
64. Nunes, V A. Incidence of newcastle disease in captive rheas
(rhea americana) in the zoological garden of Brasilia =
Ocorrencia da doenca de Newcastle em emas (Rhea americana)
mantidas em cativeiro no jardim zoologico de Brasilia.
Ocorrencia da doenca de Newcastle em emas (Rhead americana)
mantidas em cativeiro no jardim zoologico de Brasilia. Karachi,
Pakistan: Saad Publications (Translations Division); 1984; 16 p.
(1 folded)
Translated from Portuguese for the OICD, APHIS, USDA and the
National Science Foundation by Saad Publications, TT 84-4-0333.
65. Nunes V; Nunes I; Leite R; Ribeiral L; Negrelli F; and
Frossard P. Occurrence of Newcastle disease in rheas in the
Brazil Zoo. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, Serie Veterinaria
1975; 10(8): 35-39.
Portuguese; 9601; 21 ref
This is the first report of Newcastle disease in the rhea. Of 41
young rheas in the zoo, 10 showed respiratory and nervous
symptoms; three of them were despatched to the laboratory, one
dying en route. ND virus was isolated from lungs and brain in
chick embryo and identified by HA and HI tests, and by
reproduction of the disease in experimental chicks.
animal diseases/ Host range/ Newcastle disease/ poultry/ viral
diseases/ zoo animals/ poultry diseases/ birds/ Struthioniformes/ Rhea
americana
66. Oberthur W; Braunitzer G; Baumann R; and Wright P. [Primary
structures of the alpha and beta chains from the major hemoglobin
component of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) and American rhea
(Rhea americana) (Struthioformes). Aspects of respiratory
physiology and taxonomy]. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem 1983;
364(2): 119-134.
The primary structures of the alpha A- und beta-chains from the
major hemoglobin component of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus) and
American Rhea (Rhea americana) are given. The minor component
with the alpha D-chains was detected in Ostrich in several
concentrations, in American Rhea as in chicken and pheasant
(about 40%). By homologous comparison, Greylag Goose (Anser
anser) hemoglobin and Ostrich alpha A-chains differ by 15 amino
acids or 16 nucleotide (1 two-point mutation) exchanges,
beta-chains by 4 exchanges. Four substitutions modify alpha 1
beta 1-contacts and one phosphate contact. American Rhea and
Greylag Goose hemoglobin alpha A-chains differ by 20 amino acids
or 23 nucleotides (3 two-point mutations), beta-chains by 4
exchanges. Two substitutions modify alpha 1 beta 1-contacts, one
phosphate contact and one heme contact. Oxygen affinity of three
hemoglobin components of Ostrich are measured and the results are
discussed. Systematic and evolution of Ostrich and American Rhea
are discussed.
Amino Acid Sequence/ Amino Acids blood/ Animal/ Birds
classification/ Birds physiology/ Chemistry/ Chromatography,
Gel/ English Abstract/ Birds
blood/ Hemoglobins/ Respiration/ Respiratory System physiology
67. Oberthur W; Godovac Zimmermann J; and Braunitzer G. The
expression of alpha D chains in the hemoglobin of adult ostrich
(Struthio camelus) and American rhea (Rhea americana). The
different evolution of adult bird alpha A , alpha D and beta
chains. Biological Chemistry Hoppe-Seyler 1986; 367(6): 507-514.
The hemoglobin of adult American rhea (Rhea americana) and
ostrich (Struthio camelus) contains two components identified to
be HbA (alpha 2A beta 2) and HbD (alpha 2D beta 2). The
amino-acid sequence of alpha D-chains from HbD of adult American
rhea and ostrich has been determined. The sequence was studied by
Edman degradation of tryptic peptides and chemical cleavage
products in a liquid phase sequencer. By homologous comparison
with pheasant HbD (Phasianus colchicus colchicus), the alpha
D-chains of American rhea differ by 28 amino-acid exchanges, the
alpha D-chains of ostrich by 23 residues. These differences are
higher than those observed for alpha A- as well as for
beta-chains of HbA from the same species. The ratio of amino-acid
exchanges for beta:alpha A:alpha D for American rhea and ostrich
is found to be 1:5.5:6.5. At present the reason for the
differences in evolution rates for the beta-, alpha A- and alpha
D-chains of bird hemoglobins is still unclear.
Amino Acid Sequence/ Animal/ Comparative
Study/ Evolution/ Macromolecular Systems/ Peptide Fragments
analysis/ Species Specificity/ Trypsin metabolism/ Birds
blood/ Hemoglobin A analysis/ Hemoglobins analysis/ Hemoglobins,
Abnormal analysis
68. Orosz S; Mullins J; and Patton S. Evidence of toxoplasmosis
in two ratites. Journal of the Association of Avian Veterinarians
1992; 6(4): 219-222.
17 ref
Two ratites were presented on separate occasions for anorexia and
gastrointestinal distress. Both birds had high antibody titres
for Toxoplasma gondii. The flock mates were negative for
antibodies against T. gondii and appeared clinically normal.
Because titres to T. gondii develop in animals only following
infection, the high titre in the 2 affected birds suggests that
they had toxoplasmosis. The authors concluded that toxoplasmosis
should be considered in the differential diagnosis of ratites
with anorexia, diarrhoea and dyspnoea. Cats should not have
access to ratite feed or any areas where ratites are maintained.
If ratites are to be considered as a food source, the possibility
of T. gondii transmission needs to be investigated further.
Protozoal infections/ Case reports/ Pathology/ Disease
transmission/ Casuarius casuarius/ Rhea americana/ Toxoplasma/ Birds
/ Apicomplexa/ Sarcocystidae/ Rheidae/ Toxoplasma gondii/ USA
/ Tennessee
69. Panigrahy B; Senne D; and Pearson J. Presence of avian
influenza virus (AIV) subtypes H5N2 and H7N1 in emus (Dromaius
novaehollandiae) and rheas (Rhea americana) - virus isolation and
serologic findings. Avian Diseases 1995; 39(1): 64-67.
English; 8 ref.
Avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes H5N2 and H7N1 were isolated
from emus (Dvomaius novaehollandiae) and rheas (Rhea americana)
in Texas and North Carolina. All the rheas and emus had a history
of respiratory disease except one emu, which was clinically
normal. The isolates were not pathogenic for chickens and turkeys
under the conditions of the experiment. Humoral antibodies to all
known hemagglutinin (H) subtypes except H10, H13, and H14 and to
all nine neuraminidase (N) subtypes were found in emus and rheas
in 11 states. Therefore, emus and rheas are susceptible to
infection with several AIV subtypes.
emus/ rheas/ avian influenza virus
70. Phalen, DN and Wigle, WL. Sinusitis in five rheas: Response
to treatment. Kornelsen, MJ. Proceedings of the Annual Conference
of the Association of Avian Veterinarians; September 28-30, 1994;
Rena, Nevada. PO Box 18372/ Orlando/ FL 32861: Association Avian
Veterinarians; 1994 147-150.
English; 18 ref.
Chronic severe sinusitis resemblling that seen in turkeys with
Mycolplasma gallisepticum infections is described in 5 rheas.
Escherichia coli, a species of Staphylococcus, and a Bacullus
sp., were isolated from the sinus aspirate of one bird. Cultures
of the trachea and sinus fluid were negative for Bordetella
avium, Hemophilus paragallinarum, and Mycoplasma speices.
Antibodies of avian influenza and Chlamydia psittaci, and M.
gallisepticum, were not detected. Cryptosprodium species were not
detected by immunofluorescent antibody staining. Therapy with a
combination of tylosin and penicillin G resulted in a rapid
resoultion of the clinical signs.
rheas/ sinusitis
71. Phillips D and Asa C. Development of spermatozoa in the
rhea. Anatomical Record 1989; 223(3): 276-282.
English; 34 ref.
We have examined the ultrastructural changes that take place
during spermiogenesis in the rhea. Spermatozoa are characterized
by a curved head and a midpiece. A thin rod extends from the
anterior tip of the spermatozoon through the center of the
nucleus. A 3-mu-long distal centriole occupies the entire
midpiece. The principal piece is characterized by a small fibrous
sheath and tiny dense fibers that are only observed in the
region of the principal piece, which is immediately behind the
annulus. During development a circular manchette surrounds the
nucleus of young spermatids. Later the microtubules of the
circular manchette become reorganized into a longitudinal
manchette. A long distal and short proximal centriole are
observed in early round spermatids. The distal centriole becomes
associated with the plasma membrane. Later the proximal
centriole is observed in association with the nucleus. The area
around the centriole pair then accumulates dense material, which
is associated with either the centrioles or the circular
manchette. The longitudinal manchette forms and then disappears
and mitochondria subsequently associate with the distal
centriole. The long centriole of the rhea enables this species to
develop a midpiece similar to the midpiece of mammalian sperm
without the complex intercellular movements that characterize
mammalian spermiogenesis. (Author's abstract)
rheas/ spermatozoa growth and development/ spermatozoa
ultrastructure
72. Post K; Ayers J; Gilmore W; and Raleigh H. Campylobacter
jejuni isolated from ratites. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic
Investigation 1992; 4(3): 345-347.
English
rhea/ ostriches/ chicks/ campylobacter jejuni/ yolk
sac/ isolation/ symptoms/ histopathology/ case reports
73. Prager E; Wilson A; Osuga D; and Feeney R. Evolution of
flightless land birds on southern continents: transferrin
comparison shows monophyletic origin of ratites. Journal of
Molecular Evolution 1976; 8(3): 283-294.
A biochemical approach was used to study the evolution of ratite
birds, i.e., the ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, and kiwis.
Quantitative immunological comparison of transferrin from
ratites, tinamous, and other flying birds indicates that all the
ratites and tinamous are allied phylogenetically and that they
are of monophyletic origin relative to other birds. To explain
the current geographic distribution of ratites and the magnitude
of the transferrin distances, it is supposed that the ancestors
of these flightless birds walked across land bridges between the
southern continents during Cretaceous times.
Amino Acid Sequence/ Complement Fixation Tests/ Geography
/ Phylogeny/ Species Specificity/ *Birds/ *Evolution/ *Transferrin
74. Prantner M. Intestinal smooth muscle hyperplasia in a rhea
(Rhea americana). Avian Diseases 1995; 39(1): 197-200.
English; 11 ref.
Smooth muscle hyperplasia of the small intestine occurred in an
18-month-old rhea (Rhea americana). The mucosal thickening was
2-3 mm, and the enlarged muscle layers averaged 5 mm thick. The
intestinal villi were lengthened, pleated, and expanded by smooth
muscle hyperplasia within the lamina propria. The prominent
muscularis mucosa averaged 20 smooth muscle cells thick. The
tunica muscularis had symmetrical hyperplasia of both the inner
circular muscle layer, which had an excess of 220 cells, and the
outer longitudinal muscle layer, which consisted of five to six
large fascicles, each approximately 75 cells thick. The smooth
muscle hyperplasia, without hypertrophy, in all, intestinal
muscle layers differs greatly from mammalian cases of smooth
muscle hypertrophy, in which the increase in intestinal size
results from smooth muscle hypertrophy of the tunica muscularis.
(Author's abstract)
rheas/ hyperplasia/ intestine/ muscle
75. Rae, M. Degenerative myopathy in ratites. Proceedings of
the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians;
September 1-5, 1992; New Orleans. Florida: Association of Avian
Veterinarians; 1992 328-335.
English; 21 ref.; 9603
A large percentage of the young ratites submitted for necropsy
exhibited evidence of degenerative myopathy. The species examined
included the ostrich (Struthio camelus), the rhea (Rhea
americana) and the emu (Dromiceius novaehollandiae). The vast
majority of the birds examined were six months of age or younger.
Clicinal history was scanty, but often invloved depression,
reluctance to rise or move and rather rapid progression to death.
Lesions of acute myocardial and skeletal muscle degeneration were
observed. Histologic lesions were indistinguishable from the
nutritional myopathy described in mammals and other avian
species. Other possible causes of acute degenerative myopahty may
include intoxication with furazolidone, ionophores and Cassia and
capture myopathy. The role of vitamin E and selenium in avian
nutrition and halth was reviewed briefly. Some circulating
vitamin and mineral levels were presented, but additional work is
necessary to relate these levels to diet, age and sex of the
bird. Determination of normal organ levels are also needed, as
well as correlation with health and disease. Overzealous
supplementaion can reult in selenium toxicosis and this must be
guarded against. Viamin E supplementation is safer and appears to
prevent mortality.
ratites/ emus/ ostriches/ rheas/ degenerative myopathy
76. Reddy K and Rao B. Nematodes parasites of captive birds at
Nehru Zoological Park at Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.
Current-Science 1983; 52(7): 316.
2 ref
Examination of birds which died at the Nehru Zoological Park,
Hyderabad, India, revealed Splendidofilaria osmaniae in
Acridotheres tristis, Capillaria sp. in Rhea americana,
"Ascarididia sp." in Francolinus, Ascaridia galli in Numida
meleagris and Buceros bicornis and microfilariae in the blood of
Urocissa flairostris. The first and last of these records are
considered to be new.
Nematoda/ Birds/ India/ Zoological gardens
77. Reece R and Butler R. Some observations on the development
of the long bones of ratite birds. Australian Veterinary Journal
1984; 61(12): 403-405.
English; 9 ref
Observations were made on the long bones of 10 rheas, 3 emus and
3 ostriches, from 1-day-old to 12 weeks of age. At hatching all
long bones contained large cartilaginous cones which were
continuous with the growth plates, and an osseous cortex. At one
week of age ossification had commenced on the periphery of these
embryonic cones and in some bones the cones had become separated
from the growth plates. At 3 weeks of age the embryonic cones of
cartilage were still present in the proximal and distal
tibio-tarsi and narrow cartilaginous bridges connected the cones
to the growth plates. Embryonic cones were not present in other
long bones of this 3-week-old rhea nor in the long bones of
ratites 6, 8 and 12 weeks of age. Other praecocial birds such as
turkey poults and chickens have cones of embryonic cartilage in
their long bones at hatching and these persist in the tibio-tarsi
until 1 to 2 weeks of age. The presence of large cones of
embryonic cartilage in the tibio-tarsal bones of 3-week-old
ratite birds is probably a normal phenomenon. Awareness of this
feature is necessary for the correct differential diagnosis of
the prevalent musculoskeletal disorders of ratite birds.
Ostrich/ Rhea/ Emu/ Cartilage/ Growth
disorders/ Struthioniformes/ Postnatal development/ Limb
bones/ Ossification
78. Rzhetsky A; Kumar S; and Nei M. Four-cluster analysis: A
simple method to test phylogenetic hypotheses. Molecular Biology
and Evolution 1995; 12(1): 163-167.
English
A simple statistical test for comparing three alternative
phylogenetic hypotheses for four monophyletic groups is
presented. This test is based on the minimum-evolution
principle, and it does not require any information regarding the
branching order within each monophyletic group. It is
computationally efficient and can be easily extended to five or
more monophyletic groups.
RESEARCH
ARTICLE/ OSTRICH/ CASSOWARY/ EMU/ RHEA/ TINAMOU/ MOA/ KIWI/ MINIMUM
EVOLUTION PRINCIPLE/ MONOPHYLETIC GROUP/ MATHEMATICAL
METHOD/ ANALYTICAL METHOD/ GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION/ NEW
ZEALAND/ AUSTRALIA/ NEW GUINEA/ AFRICA/ ASIA/ SOUTH AMERICA
79. Saez H and Rodrigues de Miranda L. Two new yeast species of
animal origin isolated at the Zoological Garden, Paris:
Cryptococcus feraegula and Candida nanaspora.
Bulletin-Trimestriel-de-la-Societe-Mycologique-de-France 1988;
104(3): 213-215.
2 ref
Descriptions are given of Cryptococcus feraegula isolated from
Papio papio, Rhea americana and Daubentonia madagascariensis; and
Candida nanaspora isolated from Cebus apella.
Birds/ Zoological gardens/ Cryptococcus feraegula/ Taxonomy
/ Candida nanaspora/ Hosts/ Zoo animals/ France/ Papio
papio/ Isolation/ Rhea americana/ Daubentonia
madagascariensis/ Cebus apella/ Mycoses/ Cryptococcus
deuteromycotina/ Candida
80. Sagartz J; Swayne D; Eaton K; Hayes J; Amass K; Wack R; and
Kramer L. Necrotizing typhlocolitis associated with a spirochete
in rheas (Rhea americana). Avian Diseases 1992; 36(2): 282-289.
Includes references.
Necrotizing typhlocolitis was diagnosed in 13 juvenile common
rheas (Rhea americana) from three separate and geographically
isolated Ohio flocks, with mortality ranging from 25% to 80%. At
postpartum examination, a diphtheritic membrane covered ulcerated
cecal mucosa. Histologically, cecal sections showed necrosis and
granulomatous to-suppurative inflammation that extended into the
submucosa and often surrounded large eosinophilic colonies of
bacteria. Warthin-Starry staining showed these colonies to be
composed of entangled spirochetes that invaded the submucosa and
frequently were present transmurally. Similar organisms were
identified by Warthin-Starry staining in the cecum of a juvenile
rhea from a fourth flock that histologically had mild lymphocytic
typhlitis. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy
demonstrated the presence of a spirochete in the ceca, Anaerobic
culture yielded a gram-negative, beta-hemolytic spirochete.
Coccidia, histomonads, and Salmonella spp. were consistently
absent.
rhea/ intestinal diseases/ typhlitis/ cecum/ mucosa/ necrosis
/ inflammation/ spirochaetales/ diagnosis/ treponema/ ohio
81. Samour J; Markham J; and Nieva O. Sexing ratite birds by
cloacal examination. Veterinary Record 1984; 115(8): 167-169.
English; 8 ref
Rhea and emu chicks weighing 410-7251 g and ostrich chicks of
18-22.5 kg were examined with a human proctoscope fitted with a
suitably sized, stainless steel tube connected through a
fibreoptic cable to a powerful light source. The lubricated
proctoscope was inserted into the cloaca to a depth of 3-5 cm of
the manually restrained birds. The obturator was withdrawn and
the ventral wall of the cloaca examined. All male ratites have a
penis which is visible in the urodaeum. Females have two canals
in the same area, but there is no obvious clitoris in chicks as
there is in adults. Digital examination is also described. The
penis is easy to detect while the clitoris is difficult.
Zoo animals/ Sex/ Ratites/ Endoscopy/ Struthioniformes/ Sex
diagnosis/ Ostrich/ Birds/ Cloacal examination/ Ostriches
82. Sanford S and Rehmtulla A. Impaction in a rhea. Canadian
Veterinary Journal 1993; 34(3): 184-185.
1 ref
Rhea americana/ Rarites/ Digestive system diseases/ Case
reports/ Impaction/ Pathology/ Gizzard
83. Sanford S; Rehmtulla A; and Josephson G. Tuberculosis in
farmed rheas (Rhea americana). Avian Diseases 1994; 38(1):
193-196.
English;13 ref.
Avian tuberculosis was diagnosed in two mature rheas on different
ratite farms over a 2-year period. Both birds had died after
progressively losing body condition. Caseonecrotic granulomas
were scattered throughout the liver and spleen in both birds.
Similar granulomas were in the lung of one bird and bilaterally
in the subcutis cranial to the shoulder in the other bird. Smears
of several granulomas from both rheas revealed large numbers of
acid-fast bacilli. Histologically, the granulomas had
caseonecrotic, non-mineralized centers surrounded by giant cells.
Large numbers of acid-fast bacilli were seen free in the necrotic
material and within inflammatory cells. Amyloidosis of the liver
and spleen occurred in one rhea. Mycobacterium avium complex was
isolated at a reference laboratory from hepatic granulomas
submitted from one rhea. (Author's abstract)
avian tuberculosis/ rheas
84. Saxena A; Zlotorzycka J; and Agarwal G. Mallophaga from
birds and mammals in zoological gardens. Review article: In vitro
rearing of Mallophaga. Mallophagenfunde aus Vogeln und
Saugetieren in zoologischen Garten. Review article: In vitro
rearing of Mallophaga. Angewandte Parasitologie 1983 ; 24 (3):
178-186. p. 166-178.
Mallophaga, review of work done on in vitro rearing.
Struthiolipeurus nandu Arthropoda Rhea americana
Host/ Struthiolipeurus stresemanni Arthropoda Rhea americana Host
85. Scheideler S and Angel R. Feeding big birds. Large Animal
Veterinarian 1994; 49(2): 28, 30.
5 ref
Digestion and nutrient requirements of ratites, such as
ostriches, emus, kiwis, rheas and cassowaries, are discussed.
Vitamin E and selenium are of primary concern in ratite diets.
Struthionidae/ Dromaiidae/ Rheidae/ Apterygidae/ vitamin
E/ selenium/ nutrient requirements/ ostriches/ emus
86. Schroder, HD and Seidel, B. Diseases of nandus or rheas
(Rheidae). Erkrankungen der Zootiere. Verhandlungsbericht des
31. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und
Wildtiere; 1989; Dortmund. Berlin, German Democratic Republic:
Akademie-Verlag; 1989 111-116.
20 ref.
Zoo animals/ Birds/ Diseases/ Histomonas/ Struthioniformes
87. Sibley C and Frelin C. The egg white protein evidence for
ratite affinities. Ibis 1972; 114(3): 377-387.
English; 45 ref; 9603
Egg white proteins from a number of bird species were compared
using isoelectric focusing gel electrophoresis. From their
studies, the authors concluded that: the large ratites (ostrich,
cassowary, emu and rheas) are more closely related to one another
than to any one of them is to any other group of living birds;
two species of rheas are closely related; emu and cassoary are
closely related but less so than the two rhea species; kiwi is
enigmatic but may be closer to the tinamous than any other group;
and the tinamous are not closely related to the large ratites.
(KL)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ cassowaries/ rheas/ kiwis/ tinamous
88. Soley J. Centriole Development and Formation of the
Flagellum During Spermiogenesis in the Ostrich
(Struthio-Camelus). Journal of Anatomy 1994; 185(Part 2):
301-313.
English Article
The formation and development of the ostrich sperm tail follows
the general pattern described for vertebrate sperm but differs in
a number of important aspects when compared with other
nonpasserine birds. Midpiece formation is characterised by the
development of a long (3 mu m) distal centriole which determines
the length of the midpiece. The distal centriole surrounds a pair
of microtubules embedded in a core of dense material. A prominent
annulus, which remains stationary during spermiogenesis,
demarcates the midpiece/ principal piece junction. Ostrich
spermatids display similar cytoplasmic densities (chromatoid
body, annulus, granulated bodies, reticulated bodies and
mitochondria-associated material) to those observed in mammalian
spermatids. In the ostrich, however, the chromatoid body is not
observed to contribute towards the formation of the annulus while
the granulated bodies develop within radial bodies and not in
their vicinity as in mammals. Whereas in mammals granulated
bodies have been linked to coarse fibre formation they appear to
perform a limited function in ostrich spermatids as only
rudimentary outer dense fibres are formed. No specific role is
attributed to the reticulated bodies but the mitochondria
associated material is implicated in the formation of
intermitochondrial cement. The formation of the principal piece
and end piece of the flagellum is modelled on that of the
mammalian spermatid. The axoneme emerges from the free end of the
distal centriole and the ribs and longitudinal columns are
progressively formed from a layer of amorphous material situated
between the axoneme and the plasmalemma. The end piece is formed
by an extension of the principal piece consisting of axonemal
microtubules closely surrounded by the plasmalemma. The formation
of a long distal centriole containing a central pair of
microtubules, the stationary nature of the annulus and the
presence of a ribbed fibrous sheath around the principal pie:ce
distinguishes spermiogenesis in the ostrich and rhea from that of
other nonpasserine birds. These features appear to be
characteristic of more primitive avian families.
Spermatids/ Sperm Tail Formation/ OUTER DENSE FIBERS/ ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE/ CHROMATOID BODY/ FIBROUS SHEATH/ RAT SPERMATIDS/ GUINEA
FOWL/ ULTRASTRUCTURE/ SPERMATOGENESIS/ SPERMATOZOON
89. Soley J. Ultrastructure of Ostrich (Struthio-Camelus)
Spermatozoa .1. Transmission Electron-Microscopy. Onderstepoort
Journal of Veterinary Research 1993; 60(2): 119-130.
English Article
The origin and relationships of the tinamous (Order
Tinamiformes), ratites (Order Struthioniformes, Rheiformes,
Casuariiformes, Apterygiformes) and birds of the order
Galliformes and Anseriformes is the subject of much debate and it
has been suggested that the ultrastructural analysis of a wide
variety of avian sperm may provide information relevant to this
problem. This paper describes the fine structure of ostrich sperm
and compares the results with published information for other
non-passerine birds. Ostrich sperm display a short, conical
acrosome which covers the tapered tip of the long, cylindrical
nucleus. A nuclear invagination housing an acrosomal rod extends
deep within the karyoplasm. A centriolar complex is situated
beneath the head and consists of a short proximal centriole and a
long (3,0 mum) distal centriole which extends the complete length
of the midpiece. The central cavity of the distal centriole
contains a pair of microtubules embedded in a rod of
electrondense material. The midpiece is surrounded by a
mitochondrial sheath. Concentrations of fine granular material
are present between the mitochondria. The principal-piece of the
tail is demarcated from the midpiece by a distinct annulus and
characterized by a ribbed fibrous sheath enclosing a typical
axoneme. Rudimentary coarse fibres are observed between the
fibrous sheath and the doublet microtubules of the axoneme in the
proximal region of the principal-piece. The end-piece contains a
disorganized collection of axonemal microtubules. Ostrich sperm
differ in a number of respects from that of other non-passerine
birds (the absence of a typical perforatorium; the presence of a
ribbed fibrous sheath; a deep nuclear invagination; the structure
and length of the distal centriole) but show a close similarity
to sperm of the rhea and crested tinamou, both representatives of
primitive avian families. These observations add further support
to the theory that the ratites and tinamous constitute a
monophyletic group. The evidence presented also reinforces the
hypothesis that the ratites were the first group to branch off
from the main avian stem, to be followed by the Galliformes &
Anseriformes. Although it was impossible to determine whether the
sperm of the tinamou are more ''primitive'' than those of the
ostrich or rhea, it is clear that ostrich and rhea sperm are
closely allied and distinct from tinamou sperm.
MELOPSITTACUS UNDULATUS/ GUINEA FOWL/ BIRDS/ EVOLUTION/ RATITES/ SEMEN
90. Soley J and Roberts D. Ultrastructure Of Ostrich
(Struthio-Camelus) Spermatozoa .2. Scanning Electron Microscopy.
Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 1994; 61(3):
239-246.
English
The three-dimensional structure and size of ostrich sperm is
unknown. In this study, the morphology and dimensions of ostrich
sperm were determined by scanning electron microscopy of semen
samples obtained from sexually mature males during the breeding
season. The results indicate that sperm cells of the ostrich are
of the sauropsid type characteristic of non-passerine birds and,
in general appearance, resemble those of the chicken, turkey,
guinea fowl, budgerigar and tinamou. They differ from tinamou
sperm, however, in that they do not show a small bump at the tip
of the acrosome. Ostrich sperm are shorter (69.6 mum total
length) than those of the chicken, turkey and guinea fowl, but
longer than those of the budgerigar. A lack of information makes
it impossible to compare the dimensions of ostrich sperm with
those of other ratites such as the rhea. In ostrich and guinea
fowl, the sperm head is proportionately longer than that of the
chicken, turkey and budgerigar as determined by tail to head
ratios. Two distinct groups of ostriches could be distinguished
on the basis of differences in the length of various sperm cell
components. This may reflect persistent genetic (subspecies)
variations in the domestic ostrich population. [References: 28]
Guinea fowl/ Semen/ Birds
91. St. Jean G and Anderson D. Ventral abdominal hernia with
intestinal incarceration in a rhea. Agri-Practice 1995; 16(10):
20-21, 24.
English; 4 ref.; 9603
This case report describes the clinical signs of a ventral
abdominal hernia in a 4 -year-old rhea. The hernia was possibly
due to a kick from a male during breeding activities. Surgery was
performed under general anesthesia with isoflurane. Incarcerated
intestine was found at surgery. Adjacent layers of the hernia
ring were apposed and a closed continuous suction drain was
placed into the subcutaneous tissue. The rhea recovered from
surgery and is doing well 6 months later. Surgery on ratites is
becoming more common as the population of these birds increases
because of their monetary value. Ventral hernia with possible
incarceration of abdominal contents should be included in the
differential diagnosis for ventral swelling in ratites. (Author's
abstract)
rheas/ ventral abdominal hernia/ surgery
92. Stapel S; Leunissen J; Versteeg M; Wattel J; and de Jong W.
Ratites as oldest offshoot of avian stem - evidence from
alpha-crystallin A sequences. Nature 1984; 311(5983): 257-259.
English; 24 ref.; 9603
One of the most disputed issues in avian phylogeny is the origin
of the ratites, the large flightless birds of the Southern
Hemisphere. It is still not generally agreed whether the
ostriches, rheas, emus and cassowaries, and probably kiwis, form
a natural, monophyletic group, although much recent evidence
supports this view. Also, their phylogenetic relationship with
the other avian orders remains unresolved; comparative protein
sequence studies might shed new light on this problem. Therefore,
we determined the amino acid sequence of the eye lens protein
alpha-crystallin A in ostrich, rhea and emu, and in
representatives of 13 other avian orders. Comparison of these
sequences with known alpha A sequences of mammals, reptiles, frog
and dogfish provides strong evidence that the ratites, as a
monphyletic assemblage, represent the first offshoot of the avian
line. (Author's abstract)
ratites/ ostriches/ emus/ rheas/ evolution
93. Tacconi G and Valente C. A case of tuberculosis in nandu
Mycobacterium avium. Su di un caso di tubercolosi del nandu (Rhea
americana). Su di un caso di tubercolosi del nandu (Rhea
americana). Rivista di Zootecnia e Veterinaria 1981; 9(4):
234-236.
Italian; 8 ref.
94. Taylor C; Dmi'el R; Fedak M; and Schmidt Nielsen K.
Energetic cost of running and heat balance in a large bird, the
rhea. American Journal of Physiology 1971; 221(2): 597-601.
Birds metabolism/ Temperature/ *Birds physiology/ *Body Temperature
Regulation/ *Exertion/ *Heat/ *Locomotion/ *Oxygen Consumption
95. Ungureanu C; Paunescu G; Taga M; Iordache A; Nicolescu A;
Micu N; Cociu M; and Wagner G. [Vibriosis in an American rhea
(nandu)]. Archiva Veterinaria, Roumania 1973; 9(Fasc.1-2):
93-103.
German; 9601
birds/ vibrio
96. Weisbroth S and Seelig AJ. Struthiolipeurus rheae
(Mallophaga: Philopteridae), an ectoparasite of the common rhea
(Rhea americana). Journal of Parasitology 1974; 60(5): 892-894.
Birds/ Mallophaga anatomy and histology/ Pediculosis
parasitology/ *Bird Diseases parasitology/ *Mallophaga
/ *Pediculosis veterinary